THE SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION OF SEXUAL IDENTITY

The Essentialists and the Social Constructionists

When we refer to sexual orientation, two views come into conflict. The essentialist view is that we are born with a sexual orientation. This orientation develops from within us, much like a flower unfolds from a seed or a bulb. Depending on what you plant, you can only get a rose or a hyacinth. A rose does not learn to be a rose, and a hyacinth does not learn to be a hyacinth. So our sexual orientation--which becomes the center of our sexual identity--is inborn. We are born with a sexual desire for people of the opposite sex or for members of our own sex. Our sexual orientation is essential to what we are. We do learn how to express our sexuality according to social expectations; that is, we learn a role--what society or some group expects of us because of what we are--but we already are that particular thing.

      Most sociologists reject this view in favor of the social constructionist view. In this view, represented especially by symbolic interactionists, we construct our sexual identity. We are not born homosexual (having sexual preference for members of one's own sex) or heterosexual (having sexual preference for members of the opposite sex); rather, we learn these sexual orientations. As we learn them, we come to think of ourselves in these terms; that is, we acquire a sexual identity. As we do, we get a lot of help from others--from our family, friends, and peer groups. Even our culture is significant in this process of acquiring a sexual orientation and identity, for it provides the ideas and concepts that we apply to our self. Let's look at the social constructionist view in more detail.

The Shaping of Sexual Identity

Symbolic interactionists emphasize that our self-images are never firm, fixed things, but, rather, they are fluid and always "in process." You probably have noticed how your own self image changes. It may even go "up" or "down" with a grade you receive. It does the same when someone we are sexually attracted to says something positive or negative about us. We can feel our self image change when we feel accepted and loved--or rejected and disliked.

      Our sexual identity is firmer than this. During childhood it may be tenuous, but over time it becomes more firmly rooted. As adults, we seldom question it. Most of us feel solidly heterosexual, and some of us feel solidly homosexual. We have our sexual desires, and we have a sexual identity that matches those desires. Seldom does our sexual identity come into question. But it does happen. We may have a disruptive experience, such as an unexpected sexual attraction to someone of the opposite sex (for those with a homosexual identity) or of the same sex (for those with a heterosexual identity). This can lead the individual to question his or her sexual identity. Homosexuals can wonder if they are, perhaps, "really" heterosexual, and heterosexuals can wonder if they are, perhaps, "really" homosexual.

      For some, laying claim to a specific sexual identity is easy. They feel strongly that they are heterosexual or homosexual--and always have been. For others, finding what they think of as the "real" sexual self is a long, torturous process. Some never do settle the question of just "who" they are sexually. They move between heterosexual and homosexual identities, never quite sure if they are "one" or the "other." Some even decide that they are neither. Feeling sexual attraction for both males and females, they call themselves bisexuals.

      Confirming our sexual identity: Activities and outsiders As we acquire our sexual identity, we try to confirm it. We tend to associate with people who reinforce our sexual self-image. If we identify ourselves as heterosexual, we tend to associate with heterosexuals and do "heterosexual things." Those "heterosexual things" may include making jokes about homosexuals. If we identify ourselves as homosexual, the process is similar. We tend to associate with homosexuals, and we do "homosexual things." We may joke about heterosexuals, the way "they" are.

      Doing things associated with our particular sexual identity and joking about the "other" helps us lay claim to our sexual identity. Homosexuals serve as "outsiders" that help heterosexuals claim their sexual identity, while heterosexuals serve as "outsiders" that help homosexuals claim their sexual identity. One way that we know who we are is by knowing who we are not. "Insider" and "outsider" statuses help us to claim a distinct identity, for it means that we are not one of "them." The identities of heterosexuals and homosexuals differ from one another, but the process by which they arrive at those identities is similar. Regardless of our sexual orientation, each of us attempts to affirm a sexual identity, to more fully discover just "who" we are.

      The role of culture In this process of developing a sexual identity, you can see culture at work: The categories we are currently offered are heterosexual, homosexual, and bisexual. People are expected to select one (actually, they are expected to select heterosexual), and to then define themselves according to that term. That term is commonly taken as written in stone--as representing what people really "are," not a role or a temporary identity. Earlier in our history, we apparently did not have this either--or approach, and some people engaged in occasional sex with members of their own sex without being labeled homosexual (Chauncey 1994; Valocchi 1999). To make the role that culture plays in our sexual identity clearer, you may want to consider a group that offers an entirely different choice. See the Cultural Diversity Around the World box on the berdaches.

      In sum According to the essentialists, our sexual orientation is fixed in nature and inherent at birth. It represents our essential sexual being, what we really are. We learn roles that match our inborn sexual orientation. Since these roles are social, they differ from one group to another, but if there is a correct match, those roles reflect our biologically determined sexual orientation.

      This view is rejected by most sociologists, who follow the social constructionists (represented especially by symbolic interactionists). According to this view, our sexual orientation is neither fixed in nature nor inherent at birth. Instead, we are born with an undirected sex drive that becomes channeled by our social experiences in some particular direction. In short, unlike what is commonly thought, our sexual orientation--whether it be heterosexual, homosexual, bisexual, or something else--does not unfold automatically from within. Our sexual orientation is not like an acorn that can become only an oak tree. Rather, based on our personal experiences we learn our sexual preferences, assume a matching role from those available within our culture, and create a sexual identity.

      To better understand the social aspect of human sexuality, let's consider the incest taboo, homosexuality, and heterosexuality. As we do, you may gain a better understanding of your own sexual self, of how your sexual identity develops.